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"There is only one way for the moderns to become
great, perhaps unequalled:
By imitating the ancients."
Johann Joachim Winckelmann 1717-68
 urnishings
and furniture in particular, from very early in the in the development
of society, have been a symbol of status and pleasure, and influenced
by political, geographical, practical and technical changes throughout
history.
It is not my intention here to condense 1000's of years of design
into a few paragraphs, but to give you a simplified history and
a taste of the designs that have been most influential, in helping
you decide what is most suitable for you.
We all have our favourites, I am happy to discuss further any concepts
you may have in mind and can always offer more ideas from my extensive
design library.
Ancient Egypt
Designs from 3000BC to 332BC.
One of the great cultural influences in design to this day, and
often revived as a style, giving it the "immortality",
it was originally intended for simple, elegant with symbolic motifs
reserved for royalty and used for prestige and authority. For example,
the evolution of the chair, becoming the throne and used in modern
terminology such as "chairman", with stools left for the
lower hierarchy.
Plywood, veneers, inlay, metal hand planes and woodworking tools
were in use similar to today.
A design dominated by symbols of animals, items of office, hieroglyphics,
precious metals, jewels, gold leaf, leather, acacia, cedar, ebony,
sycamore, ivory, glass.
Portable and folding items were prominent, with the x-shape folding
chair popular.
Associated terminology:
The pharaohs: Menes, Cheops, Hatshesput, Thutmose III, Akhenaten,
Tutankhamen, Rameses II-III and, of course, Cleopatra (though more
Hellenistic).
Ancient Greece & Hellenistic
Designs From1200 BC To 31 BC
We might not think we owe much to the furniture from over 2000
years ago, but in fact a lot of the proportions, styles and rules
of design throughout history have come both directly and indirectly
from that of ancient Greece. Not only as a living evolution, but
more and more we see archaeological patterns unearthed that define
true classicism, and the cycles of fashion are timeless.
Endless examples of recognisable designs include graceful human
forms, perfected gods and goddesses, architectural symmetry, animal
terminals, volutes and rosettes, mythological scenes, heroic legends,
foliage such as the perpetual acanthus leaf, tripod bases, couches
and the first use of steam bending of wood for furniture, all perpetuated
by the Roman empire and beyond.
Ancient Rome
Designs From 753BC - 475AD
After years of trade and the blending of cultures, the later culture
of Rome was modelled closely on that of ancient Greece. The transition
of territory and design was complete in the later years, with similar
or identical design trends and ideals in architectural, mythological
and heroic themes, although more uniform and symbolic in nature
throughout the Roman empire, from Alexandria to bath. This uniformity
throughout the known civilised world of the time made the period
more recognisable.
Again folding tables and chairs, couches, tripod and pedestal bases
and the use of elaborate veneers, inlay, ivory, precious metals,
bronze ornaments and the classic Palladian style so popular in the
later "empires" of the world.
Celtic
The term Celtic is a popularised one, ranging from the romanticised
mystic pagan symbolism and spiritualism of earth and water to Christian
Greco-Roman influences and so is used as a guide only.
Having originated in central Europe and believed to be the original
European peoples, spreading from Asia Minor to Britain, the latter
being absorbed or conquered last, and so most recognisable by language
and design. Like the people, the designs are recognised as distinct,
but are really a blend of influences; for example the Celtic cross,
with pagan motifs on a Christian symbol, and others such as bilingual
memorial stones in both Ogam (Irish) and Latin, next to those with
Norse runes.
The isolation of the extremities of Britain particularly have helped
distinguish this blend of cultural design to a recognisable extent,
with the Celtic cross, medieval Christian illuminated manuscripts,
spirals and inter-lacings. To avoid copying "the creator",
the deities of the Celtic world, plant, insect, fish, reptile, bird,
mammal and man were always stylised with intertwining limbs and
so on.
These decorative motifs have survived on numerous articles of furniture
and other artefacts found in pre-Christian burial sites, medieval
architectural fittings and furniture and Christian churches, where
pagan symbolism was still useful for protection from the odd errant
spirit.
Dark Ages to Medieval & Gothic
475AD - Early 1400's
There are many theories as to the naming of the period after the
fall the Roman Empire as the "dark ages", ranging from
the power vacuum effect of the disorder of "barbarian"
rule, crops failing, lack of commerce, plague and pestilence, to
the "nuclear winter" effect of a rogue comet or massive
volcanic eruption. Apart from the likes of Bede and Tacitus, it
was also a time scarce on written historical records, with some
technological advancements such as running water and sanitation
lost for centuries. A time of myths and legends, passed down by
oral sage and song, and the written history saved by the isolated
monasteries split between the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne in
the west and Byzantine east, the latter absorbed by the Moors, utilising
the technologies and sciences of ancient Greece and Rome, and in
turn, absorbed by the Norman power base and middle European renaissance.
Portability and utility were predominant early on, with natural
forms such as simple leaf work, animal and religious motifs in robust
carvings and metal strap work with the transient population. Ornamentation
ranged from crude to highly skilled and elaborate woodwork and metalwork,
with the new use of iron, oak, beech, cypress, walnut and other
fruitwoods, ivory, bronze and gold, leatherwork and later tapestries.
Arches, linenfold panels, tracery and trefoils, columns and mouldings
were popular in the west, with Byzantine culture continuing the
more classical patterns of Greece and Rome, evolving to arabesques,
birds, fish and interlaced knots and vines.
The late 12th century saw the decline of the Romanesque and heavy
monastic styles in the west, to an undeserving barbarian term, gothic.
With the greater unity and stability of the Norman power base and
improved engineering skills along with a greater religious, monarchical
and merchant culture, came the tall vaulted arches, pointing the
way to god amidst streams of painted light from the stained glass
windows, with architectural and sculptural woodwork and associated
arts to match.
The Renaissance
Early 1400s - 1600s AD
As the Romantic period of chivalry and heraldry had begun, the
high arched windows for the soft sunlight of northern Europe were
found to be too extreme for the harsh Mediterranean sun of the likes
of Italy, who led the new transition of furniture from decorated
pieces to works of art. In place of large windows the spaces between
the arches were painted, with plaster, stone, marble and furniture
becoming their new "canvas". The more scientific rendering
of the human form, along with the use of new materials such as gesso,
led a resurgence of the classical Greco-Roman art and architecture,
with arabesques, scrolls, strapwork and acanthus foliage and gilt
work.
There was a greater variety of types of furniture and materials
such as ceramics and marble, inlays of semi-precious stones, ebony,
ivory, tortoiseshell and pewter, along with the usual oak, walnut,
spruce, elm, lime, box, holly and red pine.
The half tester and four poster beds became a status symbol, with
the canopy not only giving privacy from the growing domestic staff,
but becoming a sign of authority, not only for beds, but also thrones
and other platforms of office.
Design trends of this era include; Florentine, Mannerist, Flemish,
Louis XIV, Tudor, Italianate, Romaine, Jacobean, Elizabethan, Arabesque
and Stuart.
Baroque
1600s To 1700s AD
A design evolution from the renaissance, but with particular emphasis
on irregular form and less of the Palladian, with the continued
use of classical form and allegory, with bold and exuberant decorative
applications, for example scrolls, wreaths, swags, of flowers, weapons
and trophies and musical motifs. An era of more specialised disciplines
with more separate and distinct skills in cabinet work, marquetry,
"boulle" work, carving, gilding, casting and so on, with
the diffusion of craftsmen throughout Europe sharing knowledge and
skills. Though it is recognised there were still all round multi
skilled craftsmen (designer, cabinet maker, sculptor) creating sculptural
furniture.
Recognised design trends and designers include: Louis XIV, Venetian,
William and Mary, Japanning, Queen Anne, Grinling Gibbons, Jean
Berain.
Rococo
Early To Mid 1700s AD
Rococo was an evolution from the earlier Baroque form, with an
emphasis on asymmetric flowing and more natural organic forms, rather
than the earlier classical lines. Motifs such as rockwork (rocaille),
scrolls, seaweed, ribbons and foliate work were intermingled.
Though short lived and popular predominantly in France and Italy,
the style was kept sophisticated by the skills of the same craftsmen
that produced the earlier more disciplined styles, which continued
their influence in England, subduing any design that came after,
for example, the Rococo style presented by the likes of Thomas Chippendale
is restrained and heavier than that of the French.
Coloured woods and veneers, gilt work, ormolu mounts (cast bronze
mixed with mercury to produce a gilt finish) and Chinoiserie ornamentation
were prominent, with the further use of fruit woods, tulip wood,
walnut, mahogany from the West Indies, purple wood, mother of pearl,
marquetry and parquetry.
Recognised design trends and designers include: Louis XV, Chippendale,
early Georgian, M. Lock, W. Vile, Cobb, Linnell and "Gothick".
Neoclassic
1700s - 1800s AD
As the name describes, an era of renewed interest in the ancient
classical lines, arising from the "age of enlightenment"
of arts and sciences, with designers of their day able to witness
the excavations of original Greek and roman artefacts, giving authority
to their designs. Again turning to more architectural ornamentation,
and a period considered by many as the pinnacle of human endeavours
of design, drawing on both ancient and "new" assessments
of design through the ages. Combined with "new" technologies,
fuelled by competitive patronage, with ornamentation ranging from
exact detail to "romanticised" interpretations to suit
the need or desired effect and with trends verging on the earlier
Palladian style, still a strong influence in England. This difference
can be seen to continue when comparing the English regency style
with the French empire style, particularly with the more personalised
and nationalistic motifs of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Egyptian excavations
and the association with imperial Rome to create a style that was
suitable for his new empire.
Again, carved gilt wood, bronze, ormolu, ebonised ornaments, West
Indian mahoganies and various local woods such as veneered oak,
walnut, red pine and fruit woods, along with ceramic and stone mounts
and brocade covers.
Recognised design trends and designers were: GB Piranesi, Charles
Percier, PFL Fontaine, Adam brothers, Cherisseau, Louis XV, Louis
XVI, LJ Le Lorrain, Oeben, JH Riesner, Gobelins, Palladian, G Joubert,
JF Leleu, G Jacob, Georgian, Regency, Empire, Biedermeier, Jacob
Desmalter, Chippendale, James Stuart, James Paine, John Cobb, Hepplewhite,
W Vile, J Linnell, M Lock, T Sheraton, T Shearer, T Hope, J Nash,
David Roetgen, Duncan Phyfe, William Lemon, Samuel McIntire and
Thomas Seymour.
The Victorian Age & Later Revivals
1800s and 1900s
When we think of the British Victorian age, we are reminded of
the phrase, "Necessity is the mother of invention". An
inspirational age, so full of change, with the expansion of the
colonies, the new technologies of the industrial revolution, and
the rise of the middle class.
Competition between the English and French designs particularly,
and Prince Albert's encouragement of the arts and industry saw a
revolutionary change, with the might of mass production, the machine
age verses the likes of the Pre-Raphaelites movement and those of
the arts and crafts movement such as William Morris and Co. with
their "romantic" interpretations of the Medieval styles.
An era that saw the emergence of furniture for the masses, where
technique and quality were not deemed necessary for the lower and
middle classes, where the words "veneer" and pine box
became throw away lines, and the terms "French", "Queen
Anne" or "Louis" became a loose terminology for any
number of furniture pieces that had any vague ornamentation.
Interesting to note, a reaction against this trend of mass production,
was the new fashion for collecting pre machine age antiques, with
the requirements of replica 18thC furniture to mingle with collections
of genuine pieces.
Furniture design in particular went through many revivals, from
neo-classic to neo-Rococo, neo-Elizabethan and so on, now antiques
in their own right, and with such quality that they can be mistaken
for the genuine article from previous eras.
Thematic rooms were popular, with Neoclassic or Rococo for the
bedroom and Gothic for the study and library and so on, with Moorish
and Asian influences also utilised. The resurgence of the "Second
Empire" and the Empress Eugenie's desire for the grandeur of
pre-revolutionary France saw a trend of corresponding designs.
Designs range from plain to extremely ornate, with the use of all
of the earlier materials such as oak, mahogany, rosewood, walnut,
metalware, stained glass, tapestries and so on.
Recognised design trends and designers include: Neoclassic, "Gothick",
Palladian, Elizabethan, Medieval, Rococo, Renaissance, Louis, Moorish,
Turkish, Second Empire, William Morris, Joseph Paxton, B D Wyatt,
George Smith, Gillow Of Lancaster (later Waring And Gillow), William
Smee and Sons, Miles and Edwards, Wright and Mansfield, Holland
and Sons, Aime Chenavard, Henri Dasson, Adolf Seder, AWN Pugin,
Charles Eastlake, Carl Leistler, William Burges, Edward Burne-Jones,
William Godwin, Philip Webb, George Jack, Frank Lloyd Wright, Eugene
Gaillard, Hector Guinard and so on.
The Art Nouveau movement of the late 1800s to early 1900s was in
a sense created as a response to the concerns that the applied arts
had lost their way in the "machine age", with the damage
caused by mass production to the purist forms of aesthetics and
authenticity. A movement predominantly promoting original style,
but described by some critics as the "swirl and blob"
or "whiplash style.
The Art Deco movement of 1900-1930 predominantly utilised geometric
and stylised designs based on the intentions of combining the abilities
of artistic design with industrial production, including stylised
historic and natural forms, exotic and erotic rendered human forms,
with designers Carlo Bugatti and Charles Rennie Mackintosh.
Australiana
Like other British colonies of the time, Australian designs followed
the same trends of Europe and particularly England of the Georgian,
Regency and Victorian and Edwardian styles, but also had many local
influences.
Many early items were made for transport with unique designs of
desks and library furniture, with folding tables or components assembled
from sea chests configurations. The early isolation of the colony
created new interpretations of original themes, developing its own
simplified utilitarian colonial style, relying more on the beauty
of the timber grains rather more than added ornamentation, with
turnery, protective metalwork and simple elegant carving. Skilled
craftsmen from Europe used local materials to great effect, for
example: Australian red cedar, maple, blackwood, and various pines
including huon. Decorations incorporated local flora and fauna.
The local resources boom in the early years of the colony helped
patronise the regency style for the new "squattocracy"
with other Victorian trends following suite.
With federation came a new nationalism, coinciding with a similar
pre-WW1 trend in Europe.
Contemporary designers include: J Blogg and Robert Prenzel.
Copyright © 2008 Kim
Bellette
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